For postmodernists, the debate on whether the mass media has created a Essay

For postmodernists, the debate on whether the mass media has created a mass culture is no longer tenable. Evaluate this claim - Essay Example However, in this globalised world, these geographical lines have blurred due to the far reaching media. That is, omnipresent media reaches various territories cutting across geographical lines and covers the activities of specific cultures and broadcasts or reports in a certain way, so that culture becomes a mass culture. In today’s age of technology and information, media influences every aspect of human life. The thinking and the attitude of the people towards a particular issue is shaped by the media or shaped by how the media shows or broadcasts or reports. The manner in which cultures are represented in media has a major impact on the way people look and imbue that culture. The mainstream mass media in the form of television, movies, newspapers, internet, etc has the ability to dominate the airwaves as well as the ‘mind waves’ of the spectators or audience, ‘injecting’ their view as our view. This form of injecting their view as our view mainly leads to the creation of mass culture. From earlier centuries, it is a common knowledge that for a nation to reach the top echelons, its armed forces has to be strong. But, now along with the armed power or â€Å"hard power†, the concept of â€Å"Soft Power† or mass media is turning out to be one of the vital factors for a nation’s development and importantly for the development of mass culture. With media entering majority of the homes and thereby minds of majority of the world population, it is used by nations, organizations and many other entities to optimally tune the people’s mind, making many of them exhibit specific behaviours, thereby leading to the formation of a mass culture. Thus, mass media is playing a major and influencing role in the creation of mass culture and this notion has found favour among majority of the Postmodernist thinkers. Jean Baudrillard, French sociologist and a

Inflation targeting has proved to be a successful strategy in many Essay

Inflation targeting has proved to be a successful strategy in many industrialized countries, but this may be only due to the fact that central banks have not be - Essay Example First, I will introduce the notion of inflation targeting, then I will look at the literature review of inflation targeting as well as speak aboutunfavorable shocks that make influence the policy, ultimately I will drow on the conlclusion as wether inflation targeting has proved to be a successful strategy in many industrialized countries or that it was only due to the fact that central banks have not been hit by strong unfavorable shocks. InflÐ °tiÐ ¾n tÐ °rgeting is Ð ° mÐ ¾netÐ °ry-pÐ ¾licy strÐ °tegy thÐ °t wÐ °s intrÐ ¾duced in New ZeÐ °lÐ °nd in 1990, hÐ °s been very successful, Ð °nd hÐ °s nÐ ¾w been Ð °dÐ ¾pted by mÐ ¾re thÐ °n 20 industriÐ °lized Ð °nd nÐ ¾n- 2% in the U.K. Ð °nd 2.5% in NÐ ¾rwÐ °y. (Mishkin, Eakins, 2006) The difference between these fÐ ¾rms dÐ ¾es nÐ ¾t seem tÐ ¾ mÐ °tter in prÐ °ctice: Ð  centrÐ °l bÐ °nk with Ð ° tÐ °rget rÐ °nge seems tÐ ¾ Ð °im fÐ ¾r the middle Ð ¾f the rÐ °nge, Ð °nd the edges Ð ¾f the rÐ °nge Ð °re nÐ ¾rmÐ °lly interpreted Ð °s â€Å"sÐ ¾ft edges,† in the sense thÐ °t they dÐ ¾ nÐ ¾t trigger discrete pÐ ¾licy chÐ °nges Ð °nd being just Ð ¾utside the rÐ °nge is nÐ ¾t cÐ ¾nsidered much different frÐ ¾m being just inside. The relation between inflation targets and central bank preferences has been thoroughly investigated. On one hand, there is a theoretical literature of Walsh (1995), Svensson (1997) that concludes that inflation targets can be used as a way of overcoming credibility problems because they can mimic optimal performance incentive contracts. On the other hand, there is an empirical literature (Bernanke et al. 1999), that looks whether inflation targets have been instrumental in reducing the policy-implied short-term trend rate of inflation. Broadly speaking, the evidence is that inflation targets have indeed brought about a change in policymakers inflation preferences. Unlike the relation between inflation targets and central bank preferences, a relatively underexplored issue is how to translate inflation targets into short-term

The Regime Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Regime Theory - Essay Example One of the major contributions of the economic theory of the international regime and cooperation has been an elucidation of what the absence of a central authority in international affairs implies for the scope and depth of cooperation (Keohane and Martin 1995). Cooperation and conflicts are key concepts employed in economic theory and power in the international regime. Keohane defines cooperation as a process that necessitates that the acts of different persons or entities that are not in prevailing agreement be got into compliance with each other through the negotiation process (Keohane, n.d.). Conflict refers to the confrontation and clash over divergent interests. The difference between conflict and cooperation is the lack of harmony between and among nations, with the chief difference being whether the actors are willing to change their behavior to each other. Economic cooperation in economic regime occurs when the strategies in reality pursued by one administration are also ad opted by another state with the aim of promoting trade. Economic regime operates under several assumptions. One of the assumptions is that economic regime is utilitarian as it takes that all aspects of decision making may be captured by utility pertinent costs and benefits and that actors maximize a utility function. Secondly, economic regime assumes actors in the international system are rational thinkers, who take into account all available information.   The third assumption is that economic regime takes.... For an international regime to be said to exist, the rules and norms must be operative, so as to specify the impact of international regimes. International regimes are almost similar to global organizations and global treaties (Neumayer, nd). Nevertheless, international regimes are theoretical institutions that are not material occurrences, not like global organizations that have material existence with budgets and personnel staff (Mayer and Rittberger 1997). International regimes have rules that act as international treaties and inherent customs, as well. International regime does not change with the changes in decision making and rules. Rather, the change in decision making criteria signifies a change within an international regime. Nonetheless, a change in the international regime itself happens when principles and norms change (Keohane, n.d.). Differences between economic regime and security regime The regime theory has for a long time addressed on how cooperation can be achieved and sustained in a world that is divided into independent national states. Regime theory has addressed the aspect of cooperation with regards to the environment, economics, security and finance. One of the major contributions of the economic theory of the international regime and cooperation has been an elucidation of what the absence of a central authority in international affairs implies for the scope and depth of cooperation (Keohane and Martin 1995). Cooperation and conflicts are key concepts employed in economic theory and power in the international regime. Keohane defines cooperation as a process that necessitates that the acts of different persons or entities that are not in prevailing agreement be got into

An integral part of teaching

An integral part of teaching How and why we assess our children has a massive impact on their life in education and consequently on how and what we plan and teach, and how children learn. The National Curriculum defines assessment as an integral part of teaching and learning (1999, p.17), emphasising the value of assessing the process of learning and teaching as well as the outcome. Suggestions on a range of assessment strategies and tools are included in the curriculum but to enable teachers and schools to continue the development of good assessment practice, more detailed guidance is necessary. To begin with it is perhaps necessary to define assessment as any process used to inform teachers as to a pupils progress and learning. There are many different types of assessment, usually discussed as different purposes of assessment while these assessments certainly differ in several significant aspects; they are united in their aspirations of making a positive contribution to bringing about learning. There are two main forms of assessment; formative and summative. I have observed both types in the classroom, recognising that the key to excellent assessment practice is to understand what each form and their methods contribute. From these observations I understand that in order to become successful in my pedagogy I need to construct my teaching to maximise the success of both formative and summative assessment in my classroom. To allow me competently use both assessment for learning and assessment of learning I must develop a range and knowledge of assessment purposes and strategies which I will now discuss. Formative assessment can provide a snapshot moment by moment picture of the success of teaching and learning. It provides the two way dialogue between educator and child, the knowledge which enhances pedagogy allowing teaching to become relevant and timely. Assessment for Learning in particular will be a clear focus for me as I look for opportunities to strengthen my own teaching practice, having observed first hand the strong contribution AfL, which the National Strategies defines as a natural, integral and essential part of effective learning and teaching and is a key element of personalised learning. Teachers and children continually reflect on how learning is progressing, see where improvements can be and identify the next steps to take (2004), can make towards effective teaching. It makes the difference between self-assured and stimulated pupils, and disenfranchised pupils who are uncertain of the rationale behind the learning objective. The case for clearly communicating the learning outcome to the class is picked up on by Clarke (2006). In my own experience and observation, this results in making learning relevant especially when the learning intention is placed in the context of previous and future learning. It also helps to illuminate which areas of subject knowledge are required to teach at which time and how this information or teaching of skills is to be structured. Clarke also recommends that the teacher works with children to identify success criteria. These are used to supply feedback to both pupils and the teacher regarding the extent to which the learning objective has been met. Consequently, the use of formative assessment enriches the process of teaching, planning and curriculum development. It can inform not only the short term goals for the class, but also the negotiated curriculum, as children are encouraged to become active learners by reflecting on their own progress and motivation. It must be stressed that not all assessment needs to be quantitative, nor does it need to be recorded .The teachers own reflective process is a vital part of assessment. The purpose of summative assessment is to illustrate that pupils have met their learning goals or reached a certain standard of accomplishment. Formative assessment in basic definition is the collection and use of evidence about the learning in relation to the explicit objectives and outcomes of a lesson. This type of assessment can then be used and interpreted by the teacher to identify what the pupil has achieved, any gaps in knowledge and to decide what steps are needed to enable the pupil to reach their potential and unit outcome. I have observed formative assessment being used to inform teachers of pupil progress and to enable them to adapt their planning and teaching to their childrens needs. The aim of formative assessment is to impact positively on pupil learning and effective pedagogy. There is a growing amount of evidence suggesting that formative assessment raises both progress and attainment levels Assessment begins in this way in the Early Years Foundation stage (EYFS), where in 2003; the Foundation Stage Profile (FSP) was introduced. The FSP consists of 13 scales relating to creative development, knowledge and understanding of the world, personal, social and emotional development, physical development, language and literacy and mathematical development. Children are assessed on each scale and their progress towards achieving early learning goals is judged. During my previous experience in my base school, I have observed how a pupil profile is built up over the EYFS, so that evidence can be used formatively and later summarised against the performance descriptions of the scales for reporting at the end of each term. Through my experience of the EYFS I have seen how teacher-based this form of assessment is, as the evidence accumulated for each child is derived from on-going learning activities. This normally takes place through the use of observation sheets and post-its. Occasi onally, a more formal assessment takes place where the teacher asks the child in question if they can perform a specific task, the evidence from which is then logged and used as assessment data, however these are still situated within the normal day to day routines of the children and no cause of distress. (Q 11 12) In comparison to the FSP, the assessment children experience in Key Stages 1 and 2 varies greatly and summative assessment plays a greater role. Summative assessment is the assessment of learning and is used to record the achievements of individuals at a particular point in their learning (usually at the end of a topic, term or year). Rather than a steady trickle of specific learning goals, it refers to a broader learning outcome which has been achieved over a longer period of time. In contrast to the singular outcomes of formative assessment, summative assessments are used in several different ways, some relating to individual pupils and some to aggregated results of groups of pupils. At the end of both Y2 and Y6, children are expected to undertake external tasks and tests in mathematics and English (SATS). The results of Key Stage 2 SATS in particular are a cause of immense pressure for both pupils and teachers, as they are reported and used to inform national statistics. It is only at the end of each Key Stage that pupil attainment must be reported in terms of national curriculum levels; however there is also a statutory requirement to provide parents with a summative report once each year. Many schools choose to include within this the levels children have reached during the academic year this trend has been reinforced by the use of optional SATS for years between 2 and 6. In addition to the assessment and tracking of individual pupils, test results (KS1 and KS2 SATS) are used to evaluate the effectiveness of the education provided by teachers, schools and local authorities and compared nationally. The results of these examinations have huge implications and c onsiderable importance for teachers as the results are used to inform targets which schools must take accountability for meeting. There are established Government national targets for the percentage of children achieving a level 4 in the key stage 2 tasks which schools are required to set targets for. The consequences of not achieving these targets are severe, with schools become subject to OFSTED inspections and categories, with lack of attainment becoming the main cause of a school being placed in special measures. (Q 11 12 13) In order to avoid such consequences, teachers are facing constant pressure to ensure children are achieving age related expectations, amid fears that they will fail to hit Government targets. Children in our primary schools are in danger of being taught a limited timetable as some schools and teachers focus on teaching to the test. This is despite recommendations by OFSTED that while à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦some schools are able to prepare pupils for tests without sacrificing the wider curriculumà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦but an emphasis on the core subjects limits what pupils do, particularly as teachers prepare them for key stage 2 exams (Marley 2008) As well as placing pressure upon teachers, national testing has a huge impact on pupils. It can cause a lack of motivation for lower ability children, as well as a view of learning as product rather than process for all children. There is much attention focussed on those children who are performing just beneath age related levels, while those who are either too far above or below the target level suffering a lack of attention. For my son, and for most 10-year olds in the country, the next nine months will be à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a sterile, narrow and meaningless exercise in drilling and cramming. Its nothing to do with the skills of his teacher who seems outstanding. Nor do I blame the school. Its called preparing for Key Stage 2 SATS (2006) It is clear that the emphasis has to be placed back on teaching rather than targets and tests. How then do we ensure the progress and attainment of the children in our schools without narrowing the curriculum? Assessing pupil progress (APP) has been accepted as recognising the differing purposes and audiences for assessment on both a day-to-day and periodic time scale. On a day-to-day capacity it provides a closer view of pupils, enabling teachers to support childrens learning through use of effective classroom intervention. Periodically it reviews a broader range of pupils work, which in turn can inform planning and enable teachers to monitor progress and attainment. The purpose of APP is to support effective planning; teaching and learning, The use of informed and consistent target setting will continue to play a crucial part in ensuring that teachers know what to teach to allow children to achieve their aims by guiding and challenging them. In my base school APP is used to support this aim, ensuring that targets are both appropriate and relevant to individuals. Similarly APP can be used to identify gaps in a pupils learning, allowing teachers to reflect upon their own teaching, especial ly in those cases where there are common mistakes and misconceptions on the part of the pupils. APP also reinforces Assessment for Learning (AfL) as a daily occurrence, leading to a more constructive impact on teaching and learning. In national guidance there is an increasing emphasis on the role of APP in tracking and recording performance. Whilst most schools recognise the opportunities to increase their teacher assessments consistency and reliability, it will take time for APP to become second nature to staff. However, the overarching aim of APP is clear it aims to enable us to recognize and celebrate overall progress in an aspect of learning, rather than just assessing learning of the most recently taught and learned. (Q 12 13 26a) As well as internal methods of assessment, schools have access to national and local data in forms of the raiseonline and national and local benchmarking data. This enables schools to pinpoint how well they are doing and any improvements they could and should make. Schools can make comparisons, not only on a national level but also against schools with similar levels of deprivation (eligibility for free school meals) or schools with similar levels of contextual value added. Supporting all schools improvement processes by providing a variety of methods to analyse their performance data as part of the self evaluation form (SEF). It is necessary however to interpret benchmarking data with care as rather than providing schools with the answers it is more likely that it would help them identify questions and issues that may need to be investigated. Whilst comparing data between schools may give accurate portrayals of a schools performance, it does not necessarily account for it. (Q 13) It is my opinion, after research and school based observations, that a successful assessment is an open one, where everyone involved, from staff to pupils are aware to some extent of what and how evidence is to be assessed. It is essential that we are completely transparent about the need for and purpose of assessment and why it is carried out in particular ways. Feedback to pupils is key in formative assessment, as it is only by showing pupils the steps they need to take in order to reach the next steps in their learning that we as teachers can bring about learning. While we cannot learn for the students, we can use feedback to make adjustments to our planning and teaching, enabling students to access the curriculum with all the tools they require. Even the very youngest pupils can be given some explanation of the assessment process, which in turns enables children to both self and peer assess. Self and peer assessment includes pupil involvement in both setting the success criteria and how they will show that they have been successful, empowering them to take control of their own learning. There are huge advantages to this type of assessment, the most significant of which are that it develops lifelong evaluation skills whilst supporting independent learning increases pupil motivation by involving them in the assessment process treats assessment as part of learning, so mistakes are seen as opportunities rather than a sign of failure. reduces the amount of teacher assessment but improves the quality. In my base school I have observed a number of self and peer assessment strategies including children marking each others work, the use of a traffic lighting system, suggesting improvements to each others work and reflecting upon their own. Of course there are possible issues surrounding the use of peer and self assessment, with many believing that it should be used only for formative assessment as it is possible that children may allow friendships to affect their objectivity. It is necessary that teachers use peer and self assessment to support their own assessment, teaching and planning rather that relying upon it completely. (Q 28) Through my reading and observations during my time in school, it has become clear to me that there is no part of interaction which is not assessed. Though this may not seem manageable, the variation of assessment strategies that I have witnessed, I have come to the realisation that assessment does not always have to have a written outcome. Instead, it suggests to me that assessment can bring about conscious teaching and informed planning. My developing understanding of a range of assessment strategies including APP, self and peer assessment , AfL among others, will enable me to use day-to-day assessment to provide the pupils in my care with instant feedback, relevant next steps, appropriate support and individual targets, allowing me to adjust my planning in line with the needs of those in my care. (Q 26a, 12, 13, 19) Although I believe that some form of summative assessment is necessary in schools, I believe that on many occasions grades, marks and levels are assigned to pupils work more often than strictly necessary when it may be more appropriate to provide formative feedback. This is something I intend to avoid in my own practice, especially as I have experienced the use of excellent formative assessment in my base school. I have found that feedback given in this way to inform a target is highly effective in motivating pupils, and goes some way towards personalising learning. Furthermore it builds confidence and the long-term aim of helping children to become independent learners. It is essential then, to ensure good teaching and learning, that assessment involves a great deal more than just testing. It should be a continuing process that encompasses many activities, both formal and informal, designed to monitor and improve teaching and in turn the bringing about of learning across all areas o f the curriculum.(Q22, 25a) Teaching will inevitably be focused on what s assessed. When conducted by testing this impact is bound to have a narrowing effect on what is taught because tests only sample the learning outcomes and include those outcomes more easily assessed by tests. If teachers use a much wider range of assessment methods, the result can be much more positive.

Love, Betrayal, Hubris, and Relationships in Cyrano de Bergerac Essays

Love, Betrayal, Hubris, and Relationships in Cyrano de Bergerac  Ã‚     Ã‚     French authors and playwrights have been acclaimed worldwide for their dynamic prose, complex situations, and unpredictable endings. The same praises hold true for Edmond Eugene Alexis Rostand. Born of Provencal ancestry on April 1, 1868, Rostand was well-learned, as evidenced by his extensive childhood education as a student of the lycee of Marseille. His father was a prominent member of the Marseille Academy. As a direct result of this high influence, Rostand concluded his studies at the College Stanislas in Paris. He studied, under the direction of the then-renowned Professor Rene Doumic, the works of those creme de la creme authors held in high esteem -- Victor Hugo, Alfred de Musset, and William Shakespeare. His interactions with both Spanish and French cultures helped augment his success as a dramatic poet. Furthermore, Rostand assisted Emile Zola in supporting Captain Dreyfus, who was unjustly convicted of treason (Kahr 186). As a Meridional, Rostand was heavily inspired by Victor Hugo. In college, Rostand found "a literary world . . . where naturalism and exoticism flourished" (vii). This attitude was formed as a result of the catastrophic Franco-Prussian War of 1870. As a member of the 1880s generation, Rostand was also influenced to become the ideal Romanticist of his time. Rostand's fourth play, Cyrano de Bergerac, afforded him the most fame. Rostand generally modeled his plays after traditional, romantic subjects and settings. A vast majority of the success of Rostand's play can be accredited to an interesting plot, a rich and sophisticated vocabulary, and real-life dialogue (to those of his lifetime). Cyrano de Bergerac, the play, debuted ... .... "Rostand, Edmond." The New Book of Knowledge. 1994 ed. "Rostand, Edmond." The New Encyclopedia Britannica. 22nd ed. 1994.       Outline I. Introduction A. Background B. Inspiration II. Leading to Cyrano A. Reasons B. Rostand's style C. Debut III. Precis of Cyrano IV. Commenting on Cyrano A. Length of Play B. Mentality of Cyrano characters C. Examples V. Rhetoric devices A. Tone 1. Commentary-example 1 2. Commentary-example 2 B. Diction 1. Commentary-example 1 2. Commentary-example 2 C. Point of view 1. Commentary-example 1 2. Commentary-example 2 VI. Overall Theme A. Major Theme B. Subsequent major themes VII. Conclusion A. Issues emphasized B. Rhetoric devices C. Overall conclusion of Rosatnd's work D. Clincher         

What is the Impact of Downsizing

As the studies below indicate, layoffs have a number of negative effects not only on workers in different industries, but also on their communities and the market as a whole. Although it has been said that downsizing can be economically beneficial to companies, the following shows that there are two sides to this issue. Over the past decade, the workplace has altered considerably in terms of job stability. People have either experienced layoffs firsthand or directly known someone else who was impacted by re-engineering, downsizing, outsourcing or acquisition. For employees adversely affected by these changes or for those who do not completely understand why these changes are occurring, the effects can be very disturbing and impact both their personal and job life. A variety of different industries have been impacted by layoffs, not only manufacturing. For example, hospitals like other companies and nonprofit organizations have experienced downsizing that has negatively impacted healthcare employees with varying degrees of psychological distress and poor health. In a 2002 study, Greenglass, Burke and Fiksenbaum showed that restructuring and its changes can result in lower job satisfaction and job insecurity. The researchers studied the relationship between impact of restructuring, job satisfaction, job insecurity and absenteeism in nurses. The results were similar to earlier studies indicating that job insecurity can often have harmful consequences for individuals. Job insecurity has frequently been reported to lead to decreased psychological well-being (Dekker & Schaufeli, 1995; Ferrie et al. , 1998). In a study of Finnish employees, Kinnunen et al. 2000) reported that job insecurity, which led to negative relationships with colleagues and superiors, was still being noted at least one year after the event. The respondents of the Greenglass study, who consisted of 1,363 nurses employed in hospitals that were undergoing extensive restructuring, first filled out a self-report anonymous questionnaire. Results of this study demonstrated that the impact of hospital restructuring had a direct effect on job satisfaction, which in turn then had a pointedly negative impact on absenteeism and on job insecurity. In addition, the study found that the more the nurses believed hospital restructuring had lowered the quality of health care and had had a negative impact on working conditions, the less likely they were to experience job satisfaction and the more apt to report feelings of job insecurity. Findings further demonstrated that job satisfaction functioned as a intermediary between the impact of restructuring and job insecurity: That is, lower job satisfaction resulting from a greater impact of restructuring led to decreased job security. The impact of restructuring also placed an indirect effect on absenteeism through job satisfaction. The lower the job satisfaction, resulting from restructuring, the more likely the nurses were to be miss work. These results were similar to prior studies that linked layoffs with an increased amount of job insecurity. Campbell-Jamieson, Worrall, & Cooper (2001), for instance, compared responses from managers in three different business settings: organizations that restructured and downsized in the previous year, those firms that restructured without downsizing, and companies that had not restructured. Managers in organizations that had downsized had less job security, lower organizational commitment and reduced morale. Research has also demonstrated that reorganization can lead to greater emotional turmoil, including such feelings as anger, anxiety, cynicism and resentment (O'Neill & Lenn, 1995). Burke & Nelson (1997) found that this is most likely the result of a variety of negative observations throughout the restructuring, such as the belief that workers were treated unfairly, the psychological contract was eroded, and future employment would be insecure. The findings by Greenglass additionally showed that the restructuring impacts job insecurity in both direct and indirect ways. In other words, an effect of downsizing is lower satisfaction with one's job. This is most probably the result of disillusionment as well as feelings of being let down by the company and uncertainty about one's employment in the future. Decreased job satisfaction then leads to lower job security. The researchers do note, however, that these increased feelings of disillusionment and decreased feelings of job satisfaction and job security can be reduced if the organization's administration does its best to offer support, information sharing, and input into decision-making. To the degree that healthcare workers believe they are important to the hospital and that the institution cares about them and their opinions, the effects of restructuring can be considerably decreased. The impact of downsizing on workers is a combination of both the psychological and physical. Kivimaki et. al (2000) conducted a study to explore the underlying mechanisms between organizational downsizing and deterioration of health of employees. He found negative changes in work are associated with the declining support from aspouse, and increased prevalence of smoking. Sickness absence rate from all causes was 2. 17 times higher after major downsizing than after minor downsizing. Adjustment for changes in work, for instance, physical demands, job control, and job insecurity, diminished the linkages between downsizing and sickness absence by 49 percent. Adjustments for impaired social support or increased smoking did not change the relationship between downsizing and absence from illness. Such conclusions were unaffected by sex and income. Kivimaki concluded that the exploration of potential mediating issues offers new knowledge concerning the possible causal pathways connecting organizational downsizing and health. Downsizing results in changes in work, social relationships, and health-related behaviors. The noticeable increase in certificated sickness absence was partially explained by simultaneous increases in physical demands and job insecurity and a decline in job control. A reduction of employees leads to a number of negative effects; the closing of an entire plant or business can even result in greater problems. The recent economic history of Cleveland County, North Carolina, has been distinguished by factory closings, business layoffs, and significant unemployment rates. More than 3,500 workers have lost their jobs in this area in the last four years. This, in fact, may even be an underestimation, since it applies to events that involve 50 or more workers at a time. Many other smaller firms have fired workers as well. Such numbers are extremely significant since the county's labor force only numbered around 42,000 workers to begin with. Layoffs have been devastating to workers and their families. In the very best cases, unemployed workers were able to find other work, but normally there was a temporary loss of income and a reduction in pay. In the worst situations, these workers remained unemployed forever, either because they lacked the necessary skills for available jobs or believed themselves too old to move or go back to school. In such situations, economic dislocation also creates problems for the greater community. When unemployment rates rise, there is an increased demand for services at a time when communities are experiencing sharp declines in tax income. These decreases often result in poorer quality education, a deteriorating infrastructure, and larger welfare rolls, which make it more difficult to attract new businesses to the area. Thus, it is not always just the employees who are impacted when there is restructuring. A literature review of downsizing studies by Farrell (2000) also showed the connection between downsizing and the impact on market orientation. Specifically, his report gave evidence that (1) trust and commitment are keys to understanding the exchanges between a company and its workers; (2) the form of restructuring strategy will impact upon the degree of trust between personnel and senior management (Mishra and Mishra 1994) and will also directly effect the firm's market orientation; (3) the type of downsizing strategy and trust level will directly impact worker commitment to the firm's goals of creating high-quality customer value; and (4) employee commitment to such company values will impact the level of market orientation (Narver, Slater and Tietje 1998). Survivors of downsizing are impacted as well, as seen in a number of studies. In a longitudinal study, Moore, Grunberg and Greenberg compared 1,244 white- and blue-collar workers who recalled either zero, one, or two exposures with layoffs; all participants were personnel of a major industrial company that had had several large episodes of layoffs. They found that employees with the greatest number of contacts with downsizing both direct, or personally targeted, and indirect, coworkers laid off, noted considerably lower levels of job security and higher levels of role ambiguity, desire to leave their jobs, depression and health concerns. Contrary to what some others had thought, their findings did not support the notion that workers more quickly recover as they encounter a larger number of downsizing episodes. They also found only partial evidence that the similarity-that is, either repeated direct or repeated indirect layoff contact–or dissimilarity-that is, a combination of direct and indirect contacts–of the form of repeated downsizing exposure played a role in the amount to which personnel noted changes in outcome variables. Similarly, Masi (2000) looked at several pervasive ideas: First, that negative effects on the employees' morale who have survived downsizing may be so harmful to overall productivity that they overshadow any immediate economic gains the workforce reductions may bring. Second, those managers who are capable of eliciting trust and organizational commitment among employees as well as generally good labor relations may largely reduce or even eliminate the possible ill-effects of downsizing. Third, is it true as a number of political economists who are critical of the free-market model in the U. S. have argued that a crucial factor in helping reduce the fears and anxieties caused by industrial layoffs is the degree of employment and/or income security available to employees outside their current place of work? Fourth, recent research concerning the presence of unions suggests that the overall character of the industrial relations system will strengthen or weaken the negative effects of downsizing. In his article, Masi reported findings from a Swedish-Canadian comparison of blue-collar manufacturing workers who had been exposed to various kinds of change, including downsizing. The results provided strong support for the belief that experience with layoffs has a strong negative impact on survivor concerns everywhere. Simultaneously, there is also some evidence supporting that the amount of externally provided security has some mitigating effect on survivor worries, and the presence of unions within a strongly adversarial system of labor relations can increase such concerns. However, the quality of labor-management does not seem to have much of a helpful effect on the negative impact of downsizing. In the future, as downsizing continues, additional studies will have to be conducted to determine long-range impacts on individuals, their families, communities and the economy as a whole.

Personal Code of Ethics Essay

â€Å"In the context of a code adopted by a profession or by a governmental or quasi-governmental organ to regulate that profession, an ethical code may be styled as a code of professional responsibility, which may dispense with difficult issues of what behavior is â€Å"ethical†. Some codes of ethics are often promulgated by the (quasi-) governmental agency responsible for licensing a profession. Violations of these codes may be subject to administrative (e.g. loss of license), civil or penal remedies. Other codes can be enforced by the promulgating organization alone; violations of these codes are usually limited to loss of membership in the organization. Other codes are merely advisory and there are no prescribed remedies for violations or even procedures for determining whether a violation even occurred† (Wikipedia, 2007). When we are called upon to make decisions, several factors are taken into consideration before this decision can be made. Depending on the type o f decision, such factors could be cultural beliefs, personal beliefs, and organizational beliefs. We have come to realize that there are fundamental challenges in trying to apply ethical principles in a cultural and organizational environment. Each culture has unique distinctions in values, which may or may not be considered ethical by each individual within society. These differences in culture and personal beliefs influence any decision, whether personal or professional, of any individual. Certain cultures within the work force may decide not to adhere to organizational codes of conduct because of not only personal feelings, but also because of the varying differences in cultural backgrounds. The intent of this paper is to identify values that are important to me personally, organizationally, and culturally, and the effects that these values have onEthics 3decision making in regards to my personal and professional life. Honesty, integrity, loyalty, and respect are highly valued and these values are present in my everyday life. â€Å"A code of ethics is often a formal statement of the organization’s values on certain ethical and social issues. Some set out general principles about an organization’s beliefs on matters such as quality, employees or the environment. Others set out the procedures to be used in specific ethical situations – such as conflicts of interest or the acceptance of gifts, and delineate the procedures to determine whether a violation of the code of ethics occurred and, if so, what remedies should be imposed. The effectiveness of such codes  of ethics depends on the extent to which to management supports them with sanctions and rewards. Violations of a private organization’s code of ethics usually can subject the violator to the organization’s remedies (in an employment context, this can mean termination of employment; in a membership context, this can mean expulsion). Of course, certain acts that constitute a violation of a code of ethics may also violate a law or regulation and can be punished by the appropriate governmental organ. They are often not part of any more general theory of ethics but accepted as pragmatic necessities. Ethical codes are distinct from moral codes that may apply to the culture, education, and religion of a whole society. Even organizations and communities that may be considered criminal may have their own ethical code of conduct, be it official or unofficial. Examples could be hackers, thieves, or even street gangs† (Wikipedia, 2007). According to Probation Officers Association of Ontario (2006), To assist Probation Officers in maintaining the integrity of their profession by upholding and advancing the purpose, knowledge, ethics and values of the probation field at all times. This Code ofEthics 4Ethics will thereby provide a standard of practice to enable all probation officers to fulfill their goals and objectives to the Offender, the Courts, the Community and the Criminal Justice System. To the profession probation officers Shall: Encourage ethical conduct by all members of the profession, have a responsibility to colleagues to develop a working relationship of mutual respect and cooperation, promote the philosophy and ethics of the profession with new colleagues, seek advice and utilize the expertise of colleagues and supervisors, contribute their expertise in order to promote the integrity and competence of the profession to the public, keep current with emerging knowledge relevant to the probation field and shall contribute to the knowledge base of the profession† To Courts, Criminal Justice and Community, Probation Officers Shall: Strive to provide the highest caliber of service to the Courts and Judiciary through the preparation of quality reports, testimony and investigations, probation Officers shall at all times conduct themselves in a manner that upholds the dignity of the Court, as an integral part of the total Criminal Justice System uphold and respe ct the tenets, rules and functions of that System, promote awareness among other members of  the Criminal Justice System, of the philosophies, functions and roles of Probation Officers, be aware of their role in protecting the community from criminal activity and in the promotion of programs for the prevention† â€Å"To the Offender Probation Officers Shall: Provide service to the offender to the maximum of their professional skill, ability and competence, maintain a professional relationship at all times to avoid conflict of interest, promote equality in every respect thereby preserving the dignity and rights of offenders, create a positive atmosphere for change that will encourage offenders to realize their goals and potentials by takingEthics 5advantage of training, treatment and services provided, Inform the offender of legal rights to and his responsibilities in the Criminal Justice System, make the offender aware of the responsibilities and duties of the Probation Officer within the Criminal Justice System, respect the privacy of the offender and the confidentiality of information subject to legal and policy parameters† What I have experienced over my 26 years of living, both personally and professionally, forms my thoughts, beliefs and feelings and therefore drives what I can call my personal code of ethics. The following briefly describes the core ideals that I maintain: Honesty – I firmly believe that honesty is the best policy. It will have to be an extreme situation that involves serious injury; damage or other loss that will convince me that not being truthful is best. I realize that the truth can often be very painful, can cause anger, distrust and hatred but I feel that if I have been truthful and given someone all of the information, they will possibly hold me in a higher regard. This honesty will hopefully allow a greater trust between us and future dealings will be less likely to be strained. Legal – I am a person that follows the laws of the land. I feel that it is wrong to steal, cheat, lie or mislead with the intent to make a personal gain. I strive to be a law-abiding citizen. I honestly do not think there is a difference between personal and professional code of ethics, which makes it hard to compare, but what I believe is that, â€Å"A personal code of ethics† is simply a belief system in which you do some things because they are â€Å"good,† and avoid doing other things because they are â€Å"bad.† Formal law has very little to do with a personal code of ethics. You develop and are responsible for this code by yourself, though your parents and social contacts have a lot to do with it. Here is an example: There are very few places in which a bystander has any  legalEthics 6obligation to come to the aid of a third party. And yet, people help out others all the time – because it is the â€Å"right† thing to do in their belief systems. References Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006-07 Edition (2006). Probation Officers andCorrectional Treatment Specialists. Retrieved October 13, 2007, fromhttp://www.bls.govWikipedia (2007). Code of Ethics. Retrived October 20, 2007, fromhttp://www.wikipedia.org